Visual Arts Expo - From Gothic Art to Prehistoric Art
The pieces of art featured here are not precise duplications of works from their presumed creators, but instead, they offer distinctive interpretations that retain the spirit of the original style. With that in mind, let's embark on the second part of our journey through the annals of art history.
Gothic Art:
Gothic Art, which emerged from the Romanesque style in the mid-12th century, represents a significant shift towards greater realism and a more natural representation of the world. Paintings and illuminated manuscripts became more detailed and colorful, often using gold and rich colors to create a sense of depth and light. In Gothic paintings, figures were depicted with more natural poses and expressions, and scenes were often set against detailed architectural or landscape backgrounds, showing an increased interest in the portrayal of space and depth. One of the most distinctive features of Gothic painting is the use of narrative, with many works telling a story through a sequence of scenes.
A beautiful example of Gothic painting is the "Maestà" by Duccio di Buoninsegna, completed in 1311. This large altarpiece, originally placed in the Siena Cathedral in Italy, depicts the Virgin Mary and Christ Child surrounded by saints and angels. The figures are rendered with a softness and elegance that reflects the Gothic style's movement away from the rigid, stylized forms of earlier periods. Additionally, the use of a detailed architectural throne and a sense of depth in the arrangement of the figures demonstrates the growing interest in spatial representation. Another example is the "Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry," an illuminated manuscript created by the Limbourg Brothers around the start of the 15th century. It is known for its detailed miniature paintings that depict the months of the year, with a particular focus on landscapes, daily life, and the changing seasons. These examples show the Gothic style's increased emphasis on realism, detail, and the use of narrative in art.
The "Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry," an illuminated manuscript crafted by the Limbourg Brothers during the Gothic period, serves as a captivating visual diary of the 15th century. Each of the twelve main illuminations represents a different month, capturing activities typical of the season. These scenes, from grape harvesting in September to noble hunting expeditions in November, provide a glimpse into the agricultural practices, societal structures, and various forms of labor that shaped life during this era.
Other significant artists associated with the Gothic period include Giotto di Bondone, Simone Martini, Ambrogio Lorenzetti, and Jean Pucelle, all of whom made significant contributions to the development of a more naturalistic and emotive style during the Gothic era.
Both Gothic art and Gothic literature share a fascination with the complex, the mysterious, and the sublime. Nevertheless, they should not be confused as they are distinct in their historical origins, specific aesthetic practices, and cultural significance.
Gothic Art refers to an artistic style that developed in Europe from the 12th to the 16th centuries, during the Middle Ages. It is characterized by its use of light and color, its emphasis on verticality and height in architecture, and its intricate and detailed representations in sculpture and painting. Gothic art is often associated with Christian religious contexts, as it was prominently featured in cathedrals and other religious artworks.
On the other hand, the Gothic genre in literature emerged much later, in the late 18th century, as part of the Romantic movement. Gothic literature is known for its exploration of themes like horror, death, the supernatural, and psychological distress. It often includes elements like haunted castles, gloomy landscapes, and mysterious occurrences. Some of the famous authors in this genre include Edgar Allan Poe, Mary Shelley, and Ann Radcliffe.
Romanesque Art
The transition from Romanesque to Gothic in visual arts, which occurred around the 12th to 13th centuries, introduced significant stylistic and thematic changes. Romanesque art, characterized by stylized and symbolic representations, was supplanted by the Gothic style's emphasis on naturalism and human emotion. In Romanesque manuscript illumination and mural painting, figures were typically depicted in a flat, two-dimensional manner, focusing on symbolic narrative over realistic portrayal. This transition mirrored society's growing emphasis on the individual and the human experience, thereby setting the stage for the profound developments of the Renaissance that would soon follow.
The Master of Saint Giles, a French painter active around the end of the 11th and beginning of the 12th century, is one of the few known artists from the Romanesque period who helped pave the way for the Gothic transition. Although not much is known about him, he is renowned for his work on a few surviving panels, such as "The Mass of Saint Giles" and "The Baptism of Clovis".
Prevalent in Europe from approximately 1000 AD to the 12th century, Romanesque art was distinguished by its robust, sturdy forms, emphasis on symmetry and balance, and decorative use of color and pattern. In painting and drawing, Romanesque artists frequently created works that were symbolic and stylized, rather than naturalistic. These predominantly religious works appeared mainly in churches and monasteries, characterized by their use of bright, vibrant colors and focus on spiritual themes.
An exemplar of Romanesque painting is the fresco in the Sanctuary of Saint John of Müstair in Switzerland, dating back to the 12th century. The sanctuary is adorned with a series of frescoes depicting scenes from the life of Christ. Characterized by their use of bright colors, stylized and somewhat abstract representation of figures, and emphasis on narrative and spiritual symbolism, these frescoes are quintessential Romanesque. The "Bury Bible," produced around 1130 in Bury St. Edmunds, England, is a prime example of Romanesque manuscript illumination. This stunningly illustrated Bible is known for its large, intricately designed initial letters and elaborate illustrations of biblical scenes, showcasing the distinct aesthetic and thematic characteristics that define Romanesque art.
Artists from the 11th to the 13th centuries frequently remained anonymous, as the religious and moral significance of their work superseded personal recognition. Here are some known works of art that have been attributed to specific artists or workshops:
The Master of Taüll: An anonymous painter named after the town of Taüll in Catalonia, Spain, where several significant Romanesque frescoes were created in the Church of Sant Climent.
The Master of Pedret: Named after a Romanesque church in Pedret, Spain, where several frescoes attributed to this master were discovered.
Master Hugo: One of the earliest named English artists, known for his work on the Bury St. Edmunds Cross and the Bury Bible during the 12th century.
Early Islamic Art:
Islamic art, emerging from the 7th century onwards, is a broad term that encompasses a wide range of artistic styles and mediums spanning various regions and cultures. This period marks the formation of an Islamic visual language, with its distinctive use of geometric and vegetal patterns, calligraphy, and figural representation. The early Islamic period, extending to the 10th century, was a time of rapid expansion and consolidation of Islamic territories, leading to a melding of artistic influences from Byzantine, Persian, and other pre-Islamic civilizations. Artworks, such as the mosaics of the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus, and the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, both completed in the 7th century, showcase this synthesis of styles.
Calligraphy, considered the highest form of art in Islamic culture, blossomed during this period. The development of the Kufic script, characterized by its angular and geometric shapes, was widely used in Qur'an manuscripts and on monumental architecture. One of the most notable examples is the Qur'an of Uthman, dated to the mid-7th century, and kept in Topkapi Palace, Istanbul. In architecture, the Great Mosque of Kairouan in Tunisia, built in the 9th century, represents one of the most significant examples of early Islamic architecture with its imposing minaret, hypostyle hall, and richly decorated mihrab.
Artists from the early Islamic period, like most pre-modern cultures, often remained anonymous as the emphasis was typically placed on the patrons who commissioned the work rather than the artists themselves. However, some craftspeople are known through historical records. For example, the craftsman Ustad Ahmad Lahauri is believed to have been the chief designer of the Taj Mahal, even though it was completed after the 10th century. In the field of calligraphy, Ibn Muqla (886-940) is a renowned figure, often credited with the creation of the first systematic Arabic script, the Kufic.
Celtic Art:
Celtic art, originating from the Iron Age and Medieval Europe, is renowned for its intricate designs, fine metalwork, and symbolic complexity. Characterized by the use of spirals, interlacing patterns, zoomorphic forms, and knotwork, Celtic art holds a unique and distinct place in the history of art. The La Tène style, which emerged around the 5th century BC, is particularly notable for its sophisticated and stylized decorative motifs. An excellent example is the Battersea Shield, discovered in the River Thames, London. This bronze shield is adorned with intricate La Tène style decoration, demonstrating the high level of skill and craftsmanship of Celtic artists.
One compelling reason to appreciate Celtic art is its deep sense of continuity and connection to the past. Each symbol, pattern, and motif often carries a wealth of meaning and history, providing a window into the Celtic worldview and their perception of the universe. The Book of Kells, a Gospel book created around 800 AD, is a perfect illustration of this. Its pages are filled with intricate interlacing designs, human figures, and animal motifs that not only serve an ornamental purpose but also convey profound spiritual and symbolic meanings. This masterful fusion of art and spirituality is a testament to the depth and richness of Celtic culture.
While many Celtic artists remained anonymous, their work has lived on, influencing and inspiring generations of artists. The Master of the Book of Kells is an anonymous artist or group of artists credited with creating the Book of Kells. Their work stands as one of the most significant examples of Celtic art in existence. The Tara Brooch, another masterpiece of Celtic metalwork from the 8th century, is attributed to an unknown artist as well. Its intricate design and fine craftsmanship have made it an icon of Celtic art. These anonymous artists, through their magnificent creations, have forever etched their mark in the annals of art history.
Byzantine Art:
Byzantine art, originating from the Eastern Roman Empire and extending from the 5th to the 15th century, is known for its rich symbolism and spiritual focus. The art form is characterized by its distinct use of flat, highly stylized figures, lavish use of gold, and profound spiritual themes. These elements combined to create a sense of other-worldliness, allowing the viewer to transcend the physical world and contemplate the divine. Notable examples include the Hagia Sophia in Istanbul, with its stunning mosaics, and the Church of San Vitale in Ravenna, Italy, particularly the famous mosaics of Emperor Justinian and Empress Theodora.
While Byzantine art is often admired for its spiritual depth and symbolism, some critics may find its heavy reliance on religious themes and rigid stylistic conventions somewhat limiting. The static and stylized nature of its representations, while symbolically significant, could be seen as lacking the dynamism and naturalism that characterizes other art forms. Yet, it is important to remember that these characteristics reflect the specific cultural and religious context of the Byzantine Empire, where art was seen as a means to express and communicate spiritual truths.
Many artists of the Byzantine period remain unknown due to the era's focus on collective artistic creation for religious devotion, rather than individual artistic expression. However, some artists' names have been preserved, such as Anthemius of Tralles and Isidore of Miletus, the architects of the Hagia Sophia. Their work, and those of other anonymous artists, continues to captivate viewers with its unique blend of rich symbolism, intricate detail, and spiritual depth, making Byzantine art a significant chapter in the history of art.
Roman Art:
Roman Art, which spans from the 8th century BC to the 5th century AD, is renowned for its rich diversity in art forms and materials, marking significant evolution over centuries. This period saw a shift from the Etruscan and Greek artistic influences during the Roman Republic to a more individualistic expression of art during the Roman Empire. The art of this era was highly functional, often used to promote the Roman political agenda, and was characterized by detailed realism and the grand scale of its architecture.
The significance of Roman art lies in its ability to combine a wide range of influences, including Greek, Etruscan, and local Italian cultures, while also reflecting the society's values, beliefs, and accomplishments. For instance, Roman portraiture was typically realistic and detailed, often portraying the subject's physical imperfections, which was a reflection of the virtue of veritas (truth) highly valued in Roman society. Artists like Apelles of Kos, Zeuxis of Heraclea, and Parrhasius were known for their significant contributions during this period.
The significance of Roman art lies not only in its aesthetic value but also in its role as a medium of communication. Roman artists used their craft to convey a wide range of messages, from political propaganda to religious devotion. The Ara Pacis, for example, is a monumental altar built to celebrate the peace brought by Emperor Augustus, and its elaborate reliefs depict scenes of religious sacrifice and imperial procession. The Column of Trajan, meanwhile, is a soaring monument that tells the story of Trajan's successful Dacian Wars through a spiraling frieze. Both works highlight the way Roman art fused form and function to create powerful visual narratives.
Mosaics, paintings and drawings were a prominent feature in Roman art, with the earliest examples dating back to the 2nd century BC. Mosaics were particularly popular in Roman homes and public buildings, showcasing intricate designs and scenes from mythology, daily life, and the natural world. The Villa of Mysteries in Pompeii, for instance, is famous for its vibrant frescoes depicting a mysterious ritual, possibly related to the cult of Dionysus. Artists like Apollodorus of Damascus were renowned for their architectural designs and mosaics, while painters like Quintus Pedius were known for their detailed and expressive works.
The evolution of Roman mosaics, paintings, and drawings marked a shift towards greater realism and diversity of subject matter. Early Roman mosaics, influenced by Greek traditions, often depicted simple geometric patterns or stylized figures. Over time, however, they became more complex and naturalistic, incorporating a wide range of colors and techniques. The paintings and drawings from Pompeii, for instance, demonstrate a sophisticated understanding of perspective, light, and shadow. Similarly, the murals of the Villa of Livia present detailed and lifelike scenes of birds, plants, and landscapes, showing the breadth and depth of Roman artistic achievement.
Ancient Greek Art:
Ancient Greek art, a cornerstone of ancient culture and society, has left an indelible mark on the history of art. This rich tradition, which began in the Cycladic and Minoan civilizations around 3300 BC, evolved through several distinct periods: the Geometric, Archaic, Classical, and Hellenistic. Greek artists demonstrated remarkable versatility, producing a wide array of works, including sculptures, pottery, mosaics, and paintings. The influence of Greek art on the development of Western culture is profound, shaping its aesthetic ideals and standards. The Parthenon, for instance, epitomizes classical Greek architecture and sculpture. As art historian H.W. Janson noted, "The history of art begins in Greece. This is not to say that there was no art before the Greeks; much to the contrary is true. Yet the Greeks were the first to give forms to images and ideas."
Artists in ancient Greece were often anonymous, only later historical accounts preserving the names of a few, such as Phidias, Praxiteles, and Polygnotos. These artists, and their contemporaries, were particularly concerned with proportion, balance, and harmony in their works. These works were often dedicated to gods and heroes, reflecting the deeply religious nature of Greek society. In their pursuit of ideal beauty, the Greeks were among the first to represent the human form in a life-like and naturalistic manner. This focus on "realistic" representations set the foundation for the Western artistic tradition. As art historian Richard T. Neer said, "Greek art created the vocabulary of Western figurative art: it popularised the notions of mimesis (imitation) and expression."
The medium of sculpture, in particular, was where the Greeks' artistic excellence was most evident. From the stylized figures of the Geometric and Archaic periods to the lifelike statues of the Classical era and the dramatic works of the Hellenistic period, Greek sculpture evolved tremendously. The sculptures from the Parthenon, created under the supervision of Phidias, are known for their intricate detailing, idealized proportions, and dynamic compositions. The renowned statue of Athena Parthenos, also by Phidias, was a monumental work in ivory and gold and was considered one of the most beautiful sculptures of the ancient world.
Mosaics were another prominent feature in ancient Greek art, becoming particularly popular during the Hellenistic period. They were typically made of small pieces of stone or glass (tesserae) and used to create intricate and colorful designs on floors, walls, and ceilings. Notable examples include the "Alexander Mosaic" from the House of the Faun in Pompeii, which depicts Alexander the Great in battle, and the "Stag Hunt Mosaic" by Gnosis. The latter is known for its vibrant depiction of a hunting scene and is one of the few signed mosaics from this era.
Drawings and paintings in ancient Greece adorned the interiors of public buildings and private homes. Frescoes, for example, decorated the walls of buildings in cities like Knossos and Akrotiri, providing valuable insights into the culture and lifestyle of the ancient Greeks. Due to the perishable nature of these mediums, however, very few ancient Greek paintings have survived to the present day. Vase paintings, more durable and numerous, offer invaluable glimpses into the ancient Greek aesthetic. Artists such as Exekias and the Andokides Painter are renowned for their black-figure and red-figure vase painting techniques, respectively. As John Boardman, a scholar of Greek art, observed, "Greek artists impose order on their materials, but their love of pattern never outweighs their esteem for the naturalism of human and animal forms."
In conclusion, ancient Greek art represents a pinnacle of creative achievement in the ancient world. Its emphasis on naturalism, proportion, and balance, as well as its variety of forms and techniques, had a profound influence on subsequent Western art. The legacy of Greek art continues to inspire and inform contemporary artistic practices, testifying to its enduring relevance and appeal.
Minoan Art:
The Minoan civilization, centered on the island of Crete, was a significant early civilization in the Aegean region, preceding even the Mycenaean civilization of ancient Greece. Minoan art, flourishing from around 2600 to 1100 BC, is known for its vibrant use of color, dynamic forms, and detailed depictions of nature and the marine environment, reflecting the Minoans' close relationship with the sea. The evolution of Minoan art can be categorized into several periods - Prepalatial, Protopalatial, Neopalatial, and Postpalatial. Notable structures like the Palace at Knossos bear testimony to the Minoans' architectural prowess and artistry. The Bull-Leaping Fresco, with its vivid depiction of a popular Minoan ritual, and the Prince of the Lilies Fresco are two of the most recognized works of Minoan art.
Minoan artists demonstrated a high degree of skill in their frescoes, pottery, and metalwork. Minoan frescoes were characterized by their naturalistic detail, bright colors, and lively scenes, often depicting people, animals, and marine life. Frescoes such as the "Dolphin Fresco" and the "Blue Bird Fresco" exhibit the Minoans' keen observation of their environment. Unfortunately, as with many ancient civilizations, artists' names are not preserved. However, their work lives on to give us a glimpse into the vibrant life and culture of the Minoan civilization. Minoan art, particularly its emphasis on naturalism and lively, dynamic scenes, had a significant influence on the subsequent Mycenaean and Greek art.
Egyptian Art:
Ancient Egyptian art, dating from around 3100 BC to 30 BC, is renowned for its distinctive style and adherence to conventions that remained remarkably consistent for over 3000 years. The evolution of Egyptian art is customarily divided into periods such as the Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom, New Kingdom, and Late Period. This art served a functional purpose, often aimed at maintaining order and harmony in the world and assisting the deceased in the afterlife. Iconic works such as the Pyramids of Giza, the Sphinx, and the many tombs in the Valley of the Kings, including that of Tutankhamun, reflect the Egyptians' profound religious beliefs and their skills in sculpture, painting, and architecture.
The Egyptians decorated the walls of their temples and tombs with intricate reliefs and paintings. They used a stylized, symbolic representation, with size denoting importance and color carrying symbolic meaning. Wall paintings from the tomb of Nebamun, for instance, depict vibrant and detailed scenes of daily life and the afterlife. Mosaics were also a part of Egyptian art, albeit less common. They were often used in jewellery and small scale decorative items. Unfortunately, as with many ancient cultures, we do not know the names of individual artists. Instead, teams of craftsmen worked together under the direction of a master artist. The art they created holds immense historical value, offering insights into the culture, religion, and daily life of ancient Egypt.
Prehistoric Art:
Prehistoric art offers a fascinating glimpse into the early development of human creativity and symbolic expression. Dating back to the Paleolithic era, it spans continents and millennia, with artworks ranging from cave paintings and petroglyphs to megalithic structures and early pottery. While we may never fully understand the meanings and purposes behind these ancient artworks, they nonetheless provide invaluable insights into the early human mind, culture, and environment.
Bronze Age Art:
The Bronze Age, which spanned from approximately 3300 BC to 1200 BC, saw significant advancements in visual art. This period was characterized by the creation of intricate metalwork, pottery, and monumental structures. The advent of bronze, a blend of copper and tin, provided artists with a new medium, allowing for more detailed and durable creations. This was a global phenomenon, with distinct artistic traditions emerging in different regions, from the Near East and Europe to Asia and the Americas.
In Europe, Bronze Age visual art is well illustrated by the rock carvings at Tanum, Sweden. These carvings, typically featuring ships, humans, animals, and weapons, offer insights into the societal values of the time, such as the importance of seafaring and warfare. Similarly, in the Near East and Indus Valley, the rise of urban civilizations like the Sumerians, Akkadians, and Harappans gave birth to a rich tapestry of visual art, often featuring complex geometric patterns and mythological motifs. In China, the Shang Dynasty (c. 1600 BC - 1046 BC) produced intricate bronze vessels, which are considered fine examples of early Chinese art.
The subsequent Iron Age saw the continuation of these artistic traditions, as well as the development of new styles and techniques. Although iron itself was less suited to artistic purposes than bronze, it was used in some decorative items. More importantly, the societal changes brought about by the Iron Age, such as the growth of complex societies and the development of written scripts, had a profound impact on visual art. The Celtic culture of Europe, for example, is known for its intricate designs in metalwork and stone carvings. In conclusion, the Bronze Age and Iron Age represent crucial stages in the evolution of human visual art, the influence of which can still be seen in the artistic traditions of various cultures today.
Neolithic Art:
The Neolithic period, also known as the New Stone Age, lasted from approximately 10,000 BC to around 4500/2000 BC. This era saw significant advancements in human civilization on a global scale, including the development of agriculture, the domestication of animals, the invention of pottery, and the formation of more complex societal structures. The art of this period often reflected these advancements, with many creations featuring detailed depictions of animals, humans, and symbols related to daily life and spiritual beliefs.
Elsewhere, in regions such as Africa and Asia, Neolithic art often took the form of rock art and pottery. For instance, the rock art in the Sahara displays a variety of themes, from animals and human figures to scenes of daily life, alluding to the changing lifestyle and environmental conditions of the period. As archaeologist Ian Hodder states, "The paintings we find in the Neolithic period add more details to human activities like hunting, fishing, and dancing. It's not just about survival anymore; it's also about their beliefs and daily life." Indeed, the art of the Neolithic period represents a critical stage in the evolution of human creativity, marking a shift towards more complex symbolic representation and a growing appreciation of the aesthetic aspects of life.
Mesolithic Art:
The Mesolithic period, which spanned from around 15,000 BC to 10,000 BC, represents a bridge between the Paleolithic and Neolithic ages. During this period, humans began to shift from a purely hunter-gatherer lifestyle to one that increasingly incorporated settled living and the beginnings of agriculture. The art of this era, found across various parts of the world, provides a vivid window into these societal changes. The themes of Mesolithic art often moved beyond mere survival, reflecting a growing fascination with the intricacies of human and animal life, as well as the natural world.
In Europe, a notable example of Mesolithic art is the rock art at Cova dels Cavalls in Spain. This artwork provides a detailed portrayal of a hunting scene, illustrating the centrality of hunting in Mesolithic societies. Similarly, in Scandinavia, the rock carvings at Alta in Norway depict scenes of hunting, fishing, and boating. In other parts of the world, such as Africa, Mesolithic art often took the form of rock art and petroglyphs. In the Sahara, for instance, the rock art depicts a variety of scenes, including animals, human figures, and symbolic motifs, which suggest a complex understanding of the world.
Despite the relative scarcity of surviving artworks from this period, the existing pieces provide invaluable insights into the lives of our ancient ancestors. As societies transitioned from nomadic to more settled lifestyles, their art began to reflect the broader range of their experiences and observations. Ultimately, the art of the Mesolithic period represents an important step in the evolution of human creativity, marking a shift towards more complex symbolic representation and a growing appreciation of the aesthetic aspects of life. These developments laid the foundation for the further artistic advancements that would occur in the Neolithic period and beyond.
Paleolithic Art:
The Paleolithic period, also known as the Old Stone Age, spans a vast period from approximately 2.6 million years ago to around 10,000 BC. This epoch witnessed the earliest known creations of prehistoric art, predominantly in the form of cave paintings and carvings. These artistic expressions, discovered across different regions of the world, are remarkable for their sophisticated depictions of animals, human figures, and abstract signs. The art from this period, often created in challenging environments deep within caves, reflects early humans' keen observation of their surroundings and their emerging ability for symbolic thought.
In Europe, the cave paintings at Lascaux and Chauvet in France stand as fantastic examples of Paleolithic art. These paintings, often depicting horses, bulls, deer, and other animals, are celebrated for their detail, dynamism, and aesthetic appeal. They reveal not only the artistic capabilities of our ancient ancestors but also their profound connection with the natural world. Similarly, in other parts of the world, such as Africa and Asia, Paleolithic art is found in the form of rock carvings and petroglyphs. For instance, the Bhimbetka rock shelters in India house stone age rock art that showcases a variety of themes, from animals and humans to scenes of everyday life.
As Jean Clottes, a prominent French prehistorian, has eloquently put it, "Paleolithic art...is an immense, wild fresco which gives us, as though from eyewitnesses, a snapshot of the environment, people, and animals of the time." This art form provides a unique window into the minds and lives of our earliest ancestors. It offers clues to their perception of the world, their beliefs, their interactions with the environment, and their social structures. These works, despite their ancient origin, continue to captivate contemporary audiences, serving as a testament to the enduring power of visual expression and the innate human drive toward creativity.
In conclusion, prehistoric art serves as a testament to the innate human desire for expression and interpretation of the world around us. While these ancient artworks may initially seem distant and mysterious, they are, in fact, threads in the tapestry of human history, connecting us to our distant ancestors. They provoke a sense of wonder and curiosity about the origins of human creativity and the diverse ways in which our ancestors perceived and engaged with their world. As we continue to discover and study these artworks, who knows what further insights we might gain into the dawn of human culture and artistic expression?
